Schooling mirrors the culture in which it is organized, and the process
of inducing teachers into the teaching profession reflects that culture
as well. (Shimahara, 1995, p. 213)
Japanese teachers of English (JTEs) are trained at general junior colleges
and universities as well as in specialized teacher training universities
and departments. Almost 70% of all two- and four-year colleges participate
in teacher education (Aoki et al., 1998); thus native speaker (NS) teachers
in general universities are likely to teach some students who are intending
to get an English teaching license. Some of these NS teachers give special
lectures, supervise practicums, or help students prepare for qualifying
exams. However, most NS teachers know little about teacher training in Japan.
Reliable information in English about the pre-service education of JTEs
is sparse. Unfortunately, "Japanese have not placed much emphasis on
educational research . . . [resulting in] a dearth of research on SLTE [second
language teacher education] practices in Japan" (Gebhard & Woo,
1992, p. 30). Tobin (1986) laments that "Japanese education is rarely
simply described or analyzed in its own terms. Instead, it is either criticized
or held up as an object of wonder" (p. 285). The purpose of this paper
is to describe in it's own terms the pre-service teacher education
of secondary-level JTEs at general universities and junior colleges.
Two features of teacher training in Japan must be acknowledged. First,
pre-service teacher training is less strongly emphasized than in-service
teacher training. In fact, most newly-employed secondary teachers are graduates
of general universities rather than of teacher training universities (Tanaka,
Uesugi, & Shiraishi, 1993). Second, Japanese universities play a relatively
small role in both pre-service and in-service teacher education. In general,
Japanese universities prepare people for entry to employment, and employers
provide training for particular roles; this is also true for the teaching
profession (Hawley and Hawley,1997).
Pre-service teacher education
There are three levels of teaching certificates for teachers in secondary
schools. Prospective graduates of four-year colleges may apply for first
class certificates to teach in lower-secondary and upper-secondary schools.
Prospective graduates of two- or three-year junior colleges may apply for
second class certificates for lower-secondary schools. There is also an
advanced class for post-graduates. Promotion to a higher class can be obtained
through additional schooling. According to Kobayashi (1993),
second class certificates are now regarded as temporary, with the definite
intention of (a) making 4year university schooling the standard for all
teachers, and (b) leading toward post-graduate schooling. (p.9)
Some anthropologists observe that due to relatively favorable (especially
for women) employment conditions -- good income, security, and status --
the Japanese school systems attract a large pool of good applicants and
are able to recruit qualified people (Benjamin, 1997; Cummings, 1980). How
are these applicants selected?
- As undergraduates, students complete course work (general education,
subject area and pedagogy courses) for teaching certification. - During their final year of education, students carry out a student
teaching practicum of several weeks. - During the summer before graduation, candidates take the Teacher Employment
Selection Test, administered by prefectural or municipal boards of education.
What follows describes these three procedures for secondary-level JTEs.
Course work
Most new JTEs are graduates of English departments at general colleges
which have been authorized to offer course work for teaching certification.
Competition is keen: Although this course work is undertaken by exceedingly
high numbers of students, there is a low rate of entry into the JTE profession.
(See Table 1.)
As in other countries, the required course work is under constant revision.
A major change was approved for April 1999, drastically reducing subject
requirements and increasing pedagogy and psychology requirements. (See Table
2.) Social volunteer work will also be required for lower-secondary credentials.
These changes were made in response to the need for better preparation for
coping with bullying, deviant and violent behavior, and school avoidance.
Table 1: March 1996 Graduates Receiving First- and Second-class
English Teacher Qualifications
English Teacher Qualifications
|
* Number or % hired as teachers as of 6/96 (Compiled from Daigaku Eigo
Kyouiku Gakkai Kyouiku Mondai Kenkyuu Kai, 1998 p.27)
Table 2: First-level certificate requirements for JHS and SHS
teachers of English
teachers of English
Area I. Candidate must have (or be ready to complete) a 4-year
university degree.
Area II. Basic courses needed by all teachers: 8 credits required
|
|
|
Area III: Pedagogy requirements: 40 credits required
| (Representative courses) |
|
|
**Universities may choose either pedagogy or subject area courses to fulfill
this area- however. at least one course in counseling is recommended by
the Ministry of Education.
Area IV: Subject area requirements: 20 credits required
| (Representative courses) |
|
|
Area V: (JHS only): 1 credit required
Practicum in social volunteer work: Candidate must receive a certificate
attesting to the completion of this requirement from the institution at
which the volunteer work was performed.
In general universities, pedagogy courses are generally taught outside
the department, often during hours outside the regular schedule of classes.
These pedagogy courses are adversely affected by their orphan status. For
example, in a survey of 218 instructors of "Methods in TEFL" classes
(Daigaku Eigo Kyouiku Gakkai Kyouiku Mondai Kenkyuu Kai, 1998), most methods
courses at general universities had from 30 to 50 students in the class,
more than double the class size at teaching universities. English literature
and linguistics departments at regular universities continuously adjust
course offerings so that students can complete the subject area requirements
while fulfilling their majors' graduation requirements. In a sense, this
"service" may actually be a disservice to the future teachers
because, according to Browne and Wada, (1998),
in most cases, prospective English teachers studying in literature departments
are not required to take any additional courses in second language acquisition
theory, ESL methodology and techniques, or testing. (p. 101)
Teaching practicum: Preparation
The teaching practicum, which takes place in the final year at college,
lasts for about two weeks, an extremely short period by American standards.
However, because only a small proportion of students will eventually become
teachers, schools are very reluctant to disrupt their crowded timetables
to increase the practicum length (Collins, 1989). Nonetheless, "no
matter how short it is [my italics] and no matter how it is organized,
student teaching seems to have a powerful impact upon most student teachers"
(Shimahara, 1995, p. 146).I believe that, for Japanese pre-service teachers,
the impact of the practicum is to invite them into the culture of teaching.
Perhaps because the practicum itself is so short, preparation during
the previous year is seen as highly significant.
Student teachers visit the school at which they will do their practicum
to meet the principal, vice-principal, and head teacher, and to get a sense
of the surroundings. They may receive documents explaining the school's
curriculum and educational approach as well as the textbook from which they
will teach the following year. At my university, student teachers are instructed
to study the English textbook carefully in the coming months, reading it
from cover to cover at least three times.
This period of preparation is the beginning of the student teachers'
acculturation into the teaching profession. They have been exhorted to behave
as exemplary representatives of their university: they must greet school
faculty and staff with loud, clear voices and always display appropriate
demeanor and bearing. For the practicum, student teachers may be explicitly
instructed to wear clean, conservative clothing with little jewelry or makeup.
(Hokkai Gakuen Daiaku Kyoushoku Iinkai, 1998). As in other professions,
the acculturation of student teachers into their profession begins with
visible appearances (katachi).
Teaching practicum: The arrival
The student teaching practicum occurs during the students' final year.
At the formal briefing that occurs one week before the practicum, student
teachers bring the necessities: textbook, documents, practicum diary notebook
(several publishers sell similar versions), and clean "indoor"
shoes to wear inside the school building.
Student teachers are given administrative information -- the schedule
of classes, special events, practicum hours -- which they carefully copy
into their diary notebooks. Student teachers at upper secondary schools
receive additional information about homerooms and clubs, for which they
will also have some responsibility. They are expected to familiarize themselves
with the layout of the school, its history, the numbers of students and
teachers, and its present educational goals -- information which they summarize
in their diary notebooks. This short but intense briefing quickly assimilates
student teachers into the school's social organization.
The arrival of student teachers is a routine part of secondary schools'
yearly calendars. Although present for only several weeks, the student teachers
are regarded by faculty, staff and students as an integral part of the school.
Their own universities acknowledge that during this period they are constituents
of another organization by excusing them from classes. This strengthens
the student teachers' sense of responsibility and provides them with a supportive
network.
Student teachers often return to their own former secondary schools,
where an especially nurturing atmosphere welcomes them into the acculturation
process. My students report feeling great nostalgia and joy upon meeting
former teachers and staff. These schools obviously feel a certain obligation
to their graduates to make their teaching practicum a relatively positive,
non-threatening experience. Student teachers' stress is further reduced
by heavily structuring the practicum for a minimum of uncertainty. For example,
my university's handbook notes that on the first day, student teachers can
expect to give a one-minute self-introduction, get a final briefing, observe
their supervising teacher's English classes, and write a report in their
diary notebook.
Teaching practicum: In the classroom
However, despite such predictability, experiences vary greatly:
Some student teachers are given ample opportunity to participate actively
in lesson planning, activity development, students evaluation, and actual
teaching; others, unfortunately, are relegated to the back of the classroom
to sit passively during the lesson only to observe... (Leonard, 1997, p.39)
Many of my own students spent much of the practicum observing classes,
but not necessarily "passively," as careful observation is an
intense activity. Some of them had the opportunity to team-teach with ALTs,
and a few had complete control of English classes for almost the entire
practicum.
Toward the end of the practicum, student teachers give a demonstration
lesson which is observed not only by the supervising teacher, but often
by the head teacher, the principal, and a teacher visiting from the student
teacher's university. Obviously, the student teacher is being evaluated
under immense pressure; at the same time, the participation of so many diligent
educators is also extremely supportive. I have observed classes in which
the principal joked with the students, helped to pass out papers, and kept
some of the wilder students under control.
This demonstration class, called a "research class," can be
observed by other English teachers as part of their own in-service training.
Thus there is a sort of supportive reciprocity, that even experienced teachers
have something to learn from novices. Their presence also reminds the student
teacher that this practicum has only been an induction into the profession,
and that the real training will occur later.
Teaching practicum: The diary notebook
One of the student teachers' major responsibilities is the completion
of the practicum diary notebook, often at the end of a long, exhausting
day. However, even this task is highly structured and supervised, so that
student teachers are set up for success rather than for failure.
In the full-page diary entry for each day, student teachers briefly record
their activities during each class period, homeroom, before and after school.
They write a paragraph of evaluation and reflection to which the supervising
teacher responds. Each diary entry is stamped with the seal of the supervising
teacher, the head teacher, and the principal.
The student teachers complete a separate observation and comment page
for each class that they observe. One of my own students observed eleven
English classes during his student teaching at a junior high school this
year. His first entries were bare outlines followed by superficial comments
such as "I think it was a class that interested all of the students."
However, his later observations became quite detailed; for example, noting
how activities were carried out: "individual Q & A-> 2 Ss ."
Before teaching a class, the student teacher records a one-page class
plan, and on a second page, the specific objectives and teaching points
of the class. After teaching the class, she writes a short, reflective paragraph,
which is commented on by the supervising teacher.
The demonstration class -- the highlight of the practicum -- calls for
an extremely detailed lesson plan and two full pages of comments. Twice
as much space is allotted for positive comments as for negative comments,
perhaps to tip the balance toward a positive experience. In the comments
about one of my students' demonstration lessons, the supervising teacher
directly addressed him as "sensei." His acculturation into
the profession had been successful.
The practicum diary notebook is the core of the practicum: a permanent
chronicle, an opportunity for reflection, and a forum for feedback.
The Teacher Employment Selection Test
The Teacher Employment Selection Test is administered every summer by
the boards of education of all prefectures and of selected cities. A standard
certificate is technically valid anywhere in the country and is good for
life.
Appointment examinations provide opportunities for all applicants --
education majors and others -- to compete universally and equally. The aim
of the examinations is to select the best qualified applicants from the
competitive pool where achievement is a major concern. (Shimahara, 1991,
p. 270)
There are constraints on who may take the Teacher Employment Selection
Test. Evidently, most prefectures allow candidates without Japanese citizenship
to take the exam, although they may not be able to rise to administrative
positions. Another limit is age, although recently this restriction has
eased up considerably. Eight years ago, more than half of the forty seven
prefectures required that applicants be under the age of thirty (Shimahara,
1991); however, today only six do (Kyouin saiyou shiken kenkyuukai,
1998, p.66). Candidates can circumvent age requirements by taking the test
in another prefecture. For example, one of my students came to Hokkaido
because she was over the age limit for getting the English teaching license
in her home prefecture.
According to Horiuchi and Muzumoto (cited in West, Jarchow & Quisenberry,
p.1073), 80% of the candidates began to prepare for the test six months
in advance, generally by cramming the collections of past tests that are
on the market. Unfortunately, these candidates claimed they did not find
their college education helpful in preparing for the test. Below is a description
of the Teacher Employment Selection Test in Hokkaido. Its general format
is typical of the 59 tests given in the 47 prefectures and 12 municipalities
(Aoki et al., 1998).
The written qualification exam
The written qualification
exam contains four parts:
Aptitude test
Hokkaido's aptitude test evidently
investigates the patience and endurance of the candidates, who complete
a set of 25 single-digit addition problems. After one minute, they continue
to the next set of 25 numbers. After fifteen sets there is a five-minute
break, followed by fifteen more sets. Flagging attention appears in the
response pattern, so candidates must be able to pace themselves properly.
This portion of the test is dreaded because it is so tiring, pointless and
distracting.
General education and pedagogy qualifying test
"ALL">This multiple choice exam tests basic knowledge of natural sciences,
social sciences, and humanities. The more difficult pedagogy section includes
questions on school laws and regulations; principles of education; educational
psychology and moral education.
Subject area qualifying test
Candidates
with the pre-first level of the Eiken test, 520 on the TOEFL, or 650 on
the TOEIC are exempted from this portion of the test, which tests high-school
level written English.
Essay test
Candidates write an essay in
Japanese on a general theme related to education.
The oral qualification exam
The oral qualification
exam, administered approximately one month after the written exam (the same
day in some prefectures), consists of two interviews in Japanese and an
oral test (practical skills) in English.
Individual interview in Japanese
Two examiners
interview one candidate for approximately fifteen minutes, with questions
ranging from the personal to pedagogic. Because special activities (club
activities, guidance, excursions, and school cleaning) are formally addressed
as an aspect of the required curriculum, many of the questions concern the
personal guidance of pupils (Okihara, 1986).
This interview is crucial in the selection of candidates that appear
likely to acculturate into the profession. The interviewers look for evidence
of specific character and personality traits as reflected in a suitable
appearance and demeanor: neat, polite, energetic, and cheerful. More ominously,
Tsuchiya (cited in West, Jarchow & Quisenberry, p.1072) contends that
the freedom of thought and of religion have been violated during these interviews.
Governmental preferences for the "type'' of person with whom they
wish to staff public schools do exist but they only [my italics]
have a bearing during the interview aspect of the prefectural teacher-employment
examinations . . . . Thus, while it is no longer possible to control the
training of teachers to ensure that they conform to governmental expectations,
a similar end may be achieved through the interview process ...."
(Collins, 1989, p. 225)
Group interview in Japanese
A group is formed
of five or six candidates ("Ms A," Ms B" etc.) who are applying
for teaching licenses in a variety of subjects. Candidates are given a broad
discussion topic such as "school rules," and three examiners (one
of whom is from a non-education profession) observe them while they discuss
this topic for thirty minutes. The candidates are given no preparation time
or ground rules, but they may choose a discussion leader if they wish.
Practical skills test
An English teacher
interviews one candidate for ten minutes. After answering simple questions
about daily life and teaching, the candidate is given a card with a high-school
level written passage. After reading silently for one minute, the candidate
reads it aloud and answers questions about the content. Candidates with
the pre-first level of the Eiken test, 520 on the TOEFL, or 650 on the TOEIC
are exempted from this portion of the interview.
Candidates do not consider this section to be difficult. In fact, one
concern is what to do if the candidate's English is far better than the
interviewer's.
Demonstration class
Most prefectures (but
not Hokkaido) also require the candidate to give a demonstration class.
Candidates receive the results of the Teacher Employment Selection Test
in late autumn. Candidates are not informed of the relative weight given
to each part of the test, but the interview is rumored to carry the greatest
weight. Candidates are not given separate scores for the various sections,
but receive a comprehensive score, indicating whether they qualified or
not.
Openings for the prefecture's teaching posts are filled in February depending
on supply and demand. In Hokkaido, candidates receiving an "A"
or "high B" qualification are assigned teaching posts for the
following school year and candidates with a low "B" qualification
are assigned teaching posts later in the year as they open up. Candidates
with a "C" qualification may be given a temporary teacher certificate
which is good for three years. Such teachers would teach English courses
at one or several schools but would not have other responsibilities.
Conclusion
In this paper I have explained pre-service training and selection of
secondary school JTEs graduating from general universities only.
As this partial survey has indicated, however, Japanese education is not
monolithic: pre-service teachers and their training institutions have a
wide range of expectations. Other teacher trainers may perceive the Japanese
system differently, and I hope that my limited interpretation will provoke
more exchange of information.
There are many related issues that I have not touched upon: training
at specialized universities of education; in-service training; the impact
of assistant language teachers (ALTs) on JTEs development; the impact of
the imminent introduction of English at primary schools on teacher training.
Other researchers' work in these areas should provide us with a bigger picture
of JTE training and its impact on English education in Japan.
Note
Many thanks to my colleagues for patently answering my many questtons
and to my students for so generously sharing their experiences.
Author
Suzanne Yonesaka is an associate professor in the Faculty
of Humanities at Hokkai Gakuen University in Sapporo, where she coordinates
the EFL program and is doing some teacher training. She can be contacted
at suzanne@jin.hokkai-s-u.ac.jp.
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Appendix
- aptitude test-tekisei kensa
- coursework for teaching certification-kyouiku katei kamoku
- demonstration class-mogi jugyou
- essay test-ronbun kensa
- evaluation and reflection-kansou/hansei
- first class certificates-isshu menkyojou
- general education and pedagogy qualifying test-kyoyou kensa
- interview test-mensetsu kensa
- observation page-jugyou nado no kansatsu/sanka no kiroku
- practical skills test-jitsugi kensa
- practicum diary notebook-kyouiku jisshu nikki
- research class-kenkyuu jugyou
- second class certificates-nisshu menkyojou
- standard class plan-hondoki no shidou keikaku
- student teaching practicum-kyouiku jisshu
- subject area qualifying test-kyouka ni kansuru senmon kensa
- Teacher Employment Selection Test-kyouin saiyou kouhosha senkou
kensa - teacher training (education) department-kyouiku gakka
- teacher training (education) university-kyouiku daigaku
- temporary teacher-hijoukin